[edit]
Main article: History of Assam
Pre-history[edit]
Further information: People of Assam
Assam and adjoining regions have evidences of human settlement from the beginning of the Stone Age. The hills at the height of 1,500 to 2,000 feet (460–615 m) were popular habitats probably due to availability of exposed dolerite basalt, useful for tool-making.
Ambari site in Guwahati has revealed Shunga-Kushana era artefacts including flight of stairs and a water tank which may date from 1st century BCE and may be 2,000 years old. Experts speculate that another significant find at Ambari is Roman era Roman roulette pottery from the 2nd century BCE. Gupta explains that while Guwahati, formerly known as Pragjyotishpur in ancient times, is mentioned in epics like the Mahabharata and the Puranas, there is a lack of substantial archaeological evidence regarding its ancient history, especially before the 7th century AD.
Legend[edit]
Further information: Danava dynasty, Bhauma dynasty, and Asura kingdom
According to a late text, Kalika Purana (c. 9th–10th century CE), the earliest ruler of Assam was Mahiranga Danava of the Danava dynasty, which was removed by Narakasura of Mithila and established the Bhauma dynasty. The last of these rulers, also Narakasura, was slain by Krishna. Naraksura's son Bhagadatta became the king, who (it is mentioned in the Mahabharata) fought for the Kauravas in the battle of Kurukshetra with an army of kiratas, chinas and dwellers of the eastern coast. At the same time towards the east in central Assam, Asura kingdom was ruled by another line of kings.
Ancient era[edit]
Further information: Kamarupa
Kamarupa kingdom at its heightDeopahar ruins
Evidence indicates presence of civilisation in Assam around 2nd century BCE, a rock cut stupa at Sri Surya Pahar has been dated to 200 BCE contemporary with rock cut Karle and Bhaja caves of Maharashtra. The site is located in a hilly terrain where several rock-cut shivalingas, votive stupas and the deities of Hindu, Buddhist and Jain pantheon are scattered. Samudragupta's 4th-century-CE Allahabad pillar inscription mentions Kamarupa and Davaka (Central Assam) as frontier kingdoms of the Gupta Empire. Davaka was later absorbed by Kamarupa, which grew into a large kingdom that spanned from Karatoya River to near present Sadiya and covered the entire Brahmaputra Valley, North Bengal, parts of Bangladesh and, at times Purnea and parts of West Bengal. The kingdom was ruled by three dynasties who traced their lineage from a mleccha or Kirata Naraka; the Varmanas (c. 350–650 CE), the Mlechchha dynasty (c.655–900 CE) and the Kamarupa-Palas (c. 900–1100 CE), from their capitals in present-day Guwahati (Pragjyotishpura), Tezpur (Haruppeswara) and North Gauhati (Durjaya) respectively. All three dynasties claimed descent from Narakasura. In the reign of the Varman king, Bhaskaravarman (c. 600–650 CE), the Chinese traveller Xuanzang visited the region and recorded his travels. Later, after weakening and disintegration (after the Kamarupa-Palas), the Kamarupa tradition was extended to c. 1255 CE by the Lunar I (c. 1120–1185 CE) and Lunar II (c. 1155–1255 CE) dynasties.
Medieval era[edit]
Further information: Kamata kingdom, Koch dynasty, Ahom kingdom, Chutia kingdom, Kachari kingdom, and Baro-Bhuyan
The Medieval Assam history may have started with the advent of Ahoms in the early part of the 13th century and covers their entire rule of 600 years till 1826. After the Bengal-Kamata War, the Khen dynasty ended, and Alauddin Hussain Shah issued coins in his name to be "Conqueror of Kamarup and Kamata". The medieval history of Assam is especially known for its conflict with Muslim powers under Turko-Afghan and Mughals, finally resulting in Assamese victory, however, this military glory was shattered in the early 19th century when it failed to resist the Burmese invasions, which led to its annexation.
Chutia kingdom[edit]
Chutia, a Bodo-Kachari group by origin, held the regions on both the banks of Brahmaputra with its domain in the area eastwards from Vishwanath (north bank) and Buridihing (south bank), in Upper Assam and in the state of Arunachal Pradesh. It was annexed by the Ahoms in the year 1524. The rivalry between the Chutias and Ahoms for the supremacy of eastern Assam led to a series of conflicts between them from the early 16th century.
Kachari kingdom[edit]
Main article: Kachari kingdom
The Dimasa, a Bodo-Kachari dynasty that ruled from the 13th century until 1854, controlled territories stretching from the Dikhow River to central and southern Assam, with their capital at Dimapur. By the early 16th century, with the expansion of the Ahom kingdom, the Chutia regions were annexed, and by around 1536, the Kacharis were confined to the areas of Hojai, North Cachar, and parts of Karbi Anglong, later expanding to Cachar. At this point, they became more of an ally to the Ahoms than a rival force.
Ahom kingdom[edit]
Early period[edit]
Main article: Sukaphaa
The Ahoms, a Tai group, ruled Upper Assam for almost 600 years. In the year 1228 the Tai-Ahoms came to the Brahmaputra Valley under the leadership of Sukapha along with 9,000 men from Mong Mao, a Tai state, situated in South-Western Yunnan of China, and established his kingdom in Upper Assam. In 1253, he founded the capital city in a hillock and named it Charaideo. At the time of his advent, the area was inhabited by Morans and Borahis. To the north and west was the Chutia kingdom, to the south was the Kachari kingdom and to the south-west were the Baro-Bhuyans.
For more than two and a half centuries, Sukapha and his descendants were primarily focused on administering and consolidating the kingdom.
Expansion[edit]
Main articles: Suhungmung and Dimasa kingdom
Charaideo Maidams - UNESCO World Heritage Site, Assam
Assamese kingdoms in their greatest territorial heights. Kachari kingdom (1230) in red dotted lines, Koch dynasty (1560) in blue lines, Ahom kingdom (1700) in red lines.
The reign of Suhungmung marked the first massive expansion of the Ahom kingdom. Besides sending punitive expeditions against the Nagas, they fought numerous battles with the Chutias, Kacharis, Bhuyans, Turko-Afghans, and the Naras. In 1522–24 the Chutia kingdom was annexed, and the capital region was placed under the administration of Sadiya-Khowa-Gohain. After securing the eastern tract, Suhungmung then expanded his kingdom westwards through conquest and extended it till Marangi to the west of the Dhansiri River. When the Kacharis tried to regain the lost territory, they were defeated, and their capital Dimapur was sacked. Over the remaining part of the Kachari kingdom, a new king Detsung, was placed as a tributary, but Detsung proved disloyal and revolted against the Ahoms. He was subsequently executed. A new dependent king was set up on the Kachari throne with the name of Nirbhaynarayan. Since then, the Kachari kings were regarded as 'thapita sanchita', meaning established and maintained by the Ahom rulers.
Suhungmung's reign also witnessed the first Muslim invasions of the kingdom. After a series of battles, the invaders were roundly defeated and were chased up to the Karatoya River. The Sultan of Bengal made peace with the king. The rising Koch king Biswa Singha also offered his submission, and the Ahom general Ton-Kham granted him all the territories that were received as dowry from the Sultan of Bengal on the condition of annual tribute.
The successors of Suhungmung, Suklenmung and Sukhaamphaa, sent many expeditions against the Bhuyans and Nagas, and there were significant wars with the Koch. During the reign of Sukhaamphaa, the Ahoms lost to a Koch army led by Chilarai, and the Ahoms had to accept Koch supremacy and had to give up the tracts north of the Brahmaputra. However, the lost tract was soon recovered with further military expeditions.
Later Period[edit]
War with Mughals[edit]
Main articles: Ahom kingdom, Bengal Subah, Koch dynasty, and Ahom–Mughal conflicts
Battle of Mogul Mir Jumla with Assam, 1661.
Cannon captured from the Mughals
Soon after the death of Nara Narayan, his kingdom was divided between the sons of Nara Narayan and Chilarai as Koch Hajo and Koch Bihar. In 1609, Laxmi Narayan, king of Cooch Behar, accepted the vassalage of Mughals, and the Koch Hajo king Raghudev, and later his son Parikshit, sought assistance from the Ahoms. In 1612, the Mughals attacked Koch Hajo, and his territory up to Barnadi River was annexed into the Mughal domain. This brought the Mughals into direct contact with the Ahoms. Meanwhile, Parikshit was trying to renew his friendship with the Ahoms, but was captured and died on his way to his kingdom. Later, Balinarayan, a brother of Parikshit who had taken refuge with the Ahoms, was made the king of Darrang in 1615 by the Ahom king Pratap Singha. From 1616 onwards, many battles were fought with the Mughal without any tangible result, starting with the Battle of Samdhara. After the last battle, the treaty was established in 1639, which fixed the Asurar ali on the south bank and the Barnadi on the north bank of the Brahmaputra as the boundary between the two.
Pratap Singha also enacted the Paik system and created several army and civil administration posts, such as the Borbarua and Borphukan. Jayadhwaj Singha took advantage of a war of succession between the sons of Shah Jahan, and occupied the imperial territories up to Dhaka. Aurangzeb, after becoming the emperor, appointed Mir Jumla II, to recover the lost territory. After failed negotiations in November 1661, Mir Jumla proceeded with a huge army and fleet to invade the Ahom kingdom. The Ahoms lost at several places, and then captured the Ahom capital Garhgaon. During the rainy season, Mir Jumla and his army suffered immeasurable hardship due to the climatic conditions of the valley, in addition to the guerrilla fighting against the invaders. After no noticeable gain, negotiation started, and in January 1663, the Treaty of Ghilajharighat was established. According to the treaty, the Ahoms acknowledged Mughal supremacy, ceding the territory west of the Bharali on the north bank and the Kalang on the south bank, along with a huge amount of war indemnity, and handing over the sons of the Gohains as hostages, and two Ahom princesses to the Mughal harem. Soon after the departure of Mir Jumla, Jayadhwaj Singha died, and the new king Chakradhwaj Singha began preparations to overthrow Mughal supremacy and to recover the lost territory. After numerous battles, and finally the Battle of Saraighat, the Mughals were forced to retreat.
Garchuk Lachit Garh a 17th-century mud fort ruins
The period after 1671 was very unstable due to the rivalry among the nobles, who wanted to establish their political power and influence by placing their own choice of prince on the throne. In 1679, Laluksola Borphukan, in hopes of becoming king with the help of the Mughals, surrendered Guwahati without any battle. But after the accession of Gadadhar Singha, at the final Battle of Itakhuli, the Mughals were badly defeated. The border was then fixed at Manah on the north bank, and the Nagarbera hill on the south bank of the Brahmaputra till its annexation by the East India Company in 1826.
18th century[edit]
See also: Rudra Singha, Siva Singha, and Moamoria rebellion
Royal court of Siva Singha and Ambika by Badha Ligira, c. 1736.
Siva dol, Devi dol and Vishnu dol on the banks Sivasagar tank, the largest temple constructed during the Ahom era
Rudra Singha succeeded Gadadhar Singha, his reign is notable because of his military achievements and his socio-cultural contributions. He had both subjugated the Kachari and Jaintia kingdoms, and had captured their kings and forced to accept Ahom suzerainty and agreed for them to pay annual tribute. Other than that, several expeditions were sent against the Miris, the Daflas, the Naga Mishmis and the Nagas of Namsung, Dayang and the Rengma Nagas during late 17th century and early 18th century. Rudra Singha had made extensive preparations for his invasion of Bengal but remained unfulfilled due to his sudden death in 1714.
After Rudra Singha, the Ahoms achieved no notable military achievements. During this period from Siva Singha to Rajeswar Singha, the kingdom witnessed peace and prosperity and was significant for constructive activities and other development. In the field of religion also, Ekasarana Dharma spread all over the kingdom and started to influence all aspects of people's lives. The religious heads of the Vaisnavite monastery exerted great influence with royal patronage and established numerous Satras, and most of the people became their disciples. So got the Ahom court greatly came under the influence of Sakta Brahman priests and astrologers. The religious policies concluded by Phuleshwari and the persecutions of unfavored Satras embroiled the situation further, along with the pressure of Paik system in the 18th century.
This finally resulted in the Moamoria rebellion (1769–1805), which greatly weakened the Ahom kingdom, where the country was greatly depopulated and unorganised. The political rivalry between the nobles made a pathway for a devastating set of invasions by the Burmese, weakening it more and finally leading to its annexation.
Antique Assamese 'Thuria' Earrings courtesy the Wovensouls Collection, Singapore
Colonial era[edit]
Further information: Colonial Assam and Assam Province
Map of Eastern Bengal and Assam under British rule, 1907–1909.
A map of the British Indian Empire in 1909 during the partition of Bengal (1905–1911), showing British India in two shades of pink (coral and pale) and the princely states in yellow. The Assam Province (initially as the Province of Eastern Bengal and Assam) can be seen towards the north-eastern side of India.
In the later part of the 18th century, religious tensions and atrocities by the nobles led to the Moamoria rebellion (1769–1805), resulting in tremendous casualties of lives and property. The rebellion was suppressed but the kingdom was severely weakened by the civil war. Political rivalry between Prime Minister Purnananda Burhagohain and Badan Chandra Borphukan, the Ahom Viceroy of Western Assam, led to an invitation to the Burmese by the latter, in turn leading to three successive Burmese invasions of Assam. The reigning monarch Chandrakanta Singha tried to check the Burmese invaders but he was defeated after fierce resistance, which led to the Burmese occupation of Assam.
A reign of terror was unleashed by the Burmese on the Assamese people, who fled to neighbouring kingdoms and British-ruled Bengal. The Burmese reached the East India Company's borders, and the First Anglo-Burmese War ensued in 1824. The war ended under the Treaty of Yandabo in 1826, with the Company taking control of Western Assam and installing Purandar Singha as king of Upper Assam in 1833. The arrangement lasted until 1838 and thereafter the British gradually annexed the entire region. Thereafter the court language and medium of instruction in educational institutions of Assam was made Bengali, instead of Assamese. Starting from 1836 until 1873, this imposition of a foreign tongue created greater unemployment among the People of Assam and Assamese literature naturally suffered in its growth.
Showing a historical incident at Kanaklata Udyan, Tezpur
The discovery of Camellia sinensis in 1834 in Assam was followed by testing in 1836–37 in London. The British allowed companies to rent land from 1839 onwards. Thereafter tea plantations proliferated in Eastern Assam, where the soil and the climate were most suitable. Problems with the imported Han Chinese labourers from China and hostility from native Assamese resulted in the migration of forced labourers from central and eastern parts of India. After initial trial and error with planting the Chinese and the Assamese-Chinese hybrid varieties, the planters later accepted the local Camellia assamica as the most suitable variety for Assam. By the 1850s, the industry started seeing some profits. The industry saw initial growth, when in 1861, investors were allowed to own land in Assam and it saw substantial progress with the invention of new technologies and machinery for preparing processed tea during the 1870s.
Despite the commercial success, tea labourers continued to be exploited, working and living under poor conditions. Fearful of greater government interference, the tea growers formed the Indian Tea Association in 1888 to lobby to retain the status quo. The organisation was successful in this, but even after India's independence, conditions of the labourers have improved very little.
The Assam Postage Circle was established by 1873 under the headship of the Deputy Post Master General.
Initially, Assam was made a part of the Bengal Presidency, then in 1906 it was made a part of Eastern Bengal and Assam province, and in 1912 it was reconstituted into a chief commissioners' province. In 1913, a legislative council and, in 1937, the Assam Legislative Assembly, were formed in Shillong, the erstwhile capital of the region. The British tea planters imported labour from central India adding to the demographic canvas.
The Assam territory was first separated from Bengal in 1874 as the 'North-East Frontier' non-regulation province, also known as the Assam Chief-Commissionership. It was incorporated into the new province of Eastern Bengal and Assam in 1905 after the partition of Bengal (1905–1911) and re-established in 1912 as Assam Province.
At the turn of the 20th century, British India consisted of eight provinces that were administered either by a governor or a lieutenant-governor. Assam Province was one among the major eight provinces of British India.
After a few initially unsuccessful attempts to gain independence for Assam during the 1850s, anti-colonial Assamese joined and actively supported the Indian National Congress against the British from the early 20th century, with Gopinath Bordoloi emerging as the preeminent nationalist leader in the Assam Congress.[citation needed] Bordoloi's major political rival in this time was Sir Saidullah, who was representing the Muslim League, and had the backing of the influential Muslim cleric Maulana Bhasani.
With the partition of India in 1947, Assam became a constituent state of India. The Sylhet District of Assam (excluding the Karimganj subdivision) was given up to East Pakistan, which later became Bangladesh.
Modern history[edit]
See also: Undivided Assam and Assam separatist movements
Assam till the 1950s; The new states of Nagaland, Meghalaya and Mizoram formed in the 1960–1970s. The capital of Assam was shifted to Dispur, a suburb of Guwahati. After the Indo-China war in 1962, Arunachal Pradesh was also separated out.
Separatist groups began forming along ethnic lines, and demands for autonomy and sovereignty grew, resulting in the fragmentation of Assam. In 1961, the government of Assam passed legislation making use of the Assamese language compulsory. It was withdrawn later under pressure from Bengali speaking people in Cachar. The government of India, which has the unilateral powers to change the borders of a state, divided Assam into several states within the borders of what was then Assam. In 1963, the Naga Hills district became the 16th state of India under the name of Nagaland. Part of Tuensang was added to Nagaland. In 1970, in response to the demands of the Khasi, Jaintia and Garo people of the Meghalaya Plateau, the districts containing the Khasi Hills, Jaintia Hills, and Garo Hills were formed into an autonomous state within Assam; in 1972 this became a separate state under the name of Meghalaya. In 1972, Arunachal Pradesh (the North East Frontier Agency) and Mizoram (from the Mizo Hills in the south) were separated from Assam as union territories; both became states in 1986. Since the restructuring of Assam after independence, communal tensions and violence remain.
In the 1980s the Brahmaputra Valley saw a six-year Assam Agitation triggered by the discovery of a sudden rise in registered voters on electoral rolls. It tried to force the government to identify and deport foreigners illegally migrating from neighbouring Bangladesh and to provide constitutional, legislative, administrative and cultural safeguards for the indigenous Assamese majority, which they felt was under threat due to the increase of migration from Bangladesh. The agitation ended after an accord (Assam Accord 1985) between its leaders and the Union Government, which remained unimplemented, causing simmering discontent.
The post 1970s experienced the growth of armed separatist groups such as the United Liberation Front of Asom (ULFA) and the National Democratic Front of Bodoland (NDFB). In November 1990, the Government of India deployed the Indian army, after which low-intensity military conflicts and political homicides have been continuing for more than a decade. In recent times, ethnically based militant groups have grown. The Panchayati Raj Act has been applied in Assam, after agitation of the communities due to the sluggish rate of development and general apathy of successive state governments towards Indigenous Assamese communities.[citation needed]
Deadly floods hit the state in 2020 and 2022.
